Plant Physiol.
HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced]


     

First published online September 15, 2006; 10.1104/pp.106.085274

Plant Physiology 142:1004-1013 (2006)
© 2006 American Society of Plant Biologists

This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Supplemental Data
Right arrow All Versions of this Article:
142/3/1004    most recent
pp.106.085274v1
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in ISI Web of Science
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via CrossRef
Right arrow Citing Articles via ISI Web of Science (20)
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Francis, K. E.
Right arrow Articles by Copenhaver, G. P.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Francis, K. E.
Right arrow Articles by Copenhaver, G. P.
Agricola
Right arrow Articles by Francis, K. E.
Right arrow Articles by Copenhaver, G. P.
DEVELOPMENT AND HORMONE ACTION

Separation of Arabidopsis Pollen Tetrads Is Regulated by QUARTET1, a Pectin Methylesterase Gene1,[W]

Kirk E. Francis, Sandy Y. Lam and Gregory P. Copenhaver*

Department of Biology and the Carolina Center for Genome Sciences, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599


   ABSTRACT
TOP
 ABSTRACT
RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 LITERATURE CITED
 
Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) QUARTET (QRT) genes are required for pollen separation during normal floral development. In qrt mutants, the four products of microsporogenesis remain fused and pollen grains are released as tetrads. In Arabidopsis, tetrad analysis in qrt mutants has been used to map all five centromeres, easily distinguish sporophytic from gametophytic mutations, and accurately assess crossover interference. Using a combination of forward and reverse genetics, we have identified the gene responsible for the qrt1 phenotype. Annotation predicts that QRT1 encodes a pectin methylesterase (PME), and enzymatic assays of QRT1 expressed in Escherichia coli indicate that QRT1 has PME activity. Promoter and transcription analysis demonstrate QRT1 is expressed in anther tissues shortly after meiosis is complete. Unexpectedly, the QRT1 promoter is also active in a variety of developmentally unrelated tissues, including developing guard cells, the hypocotyl-root transition zone, areas of lateral root emergence, and floral nectaries. PMEs constitute a large gene family in Arabidopsis, are involved in cell wall loosening, and have been implicated in various aspects of floral development and pollen tube elongation. The identification of QRT1 as a PME contributes to our understanding of pollen development and may help to provide valuable genetic tools in other plant species.

The Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) quartet (qrt) mutants, particularly qrt1, have been a valuable resource to the plant research community for over a decade. qrt mutants are particularly interesting because they can be used to provide a powerful genetic tool—tetrad analysis—in plants, as well as insight into pollen development, cell-cell adhesion mechanisms, and plant cell wall biosynthesis and degradation (Rhee and Somerville, 1998Go; Copenhaver et al., 2000Go; Schnurr et al., 2006Go). Whereas qrt1 mutant plants have been used extensively as a tool in Arabidopsis research (Johnson-Brousseau and McCormick, 2004Go), the precise identity and function of QRT1 have not been reported. Identification of QRT1 will enhance our understanding of pollen development and may also enable the recapitulation of the QRT phenotype, and thus tetrad analysis, in other plant species.

Pollen development in Arabidopsis and other plant species has been well characterized and involves the generation and degradation of numerous specialized cell wall layers (Fig. 1 ; Bedinger, 1992Go; Owen and Makaroff, 1995Go; Brett and Waldron, 1996Go; Ma, 2005Go). Pollen development begins with division of an initial cell that gives rise to a pollen mother cell (PMC). The PMC is surrounded by a primary cell wall composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin (Carpita and Gibeaut, 1993Go; Reiter, 1994Go; Brett and Waldron, 1996Go). Between the plasma membrane and the primary cell wall, the PMC also develops a specialized secondary cell wall composed almost entirely of callose (Dong et al., 2005Go; Nishikawa et al., 2005Go). Meiotic division of the PMC results in four microspores. These microspores develop within the surrounding callose layer and are then encased in an additional wall layer called the primexine. As the microspores mature, the primary cell wall and the secondary callose layer, which surround the microspores, degrade, releasing individual microspores into the locules of the anther. Within the locules, the microspore primexine matures to form the exine, and the outermost pollen wall, which is primarily composed of sporopollenin, is secreted by the tapetum and encapsulates the developing pollen grains. Finally, an inner cellulose wall, called the intine, develops between the exine and the plasma membrane to complete pollen wall development (Owen and Makaroff, 1995Go; Boavida et al., 2005Go).


Figure 1
View larger version (19K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 1. Arabidopsis pollen development. In wild-type pollen development, the PMC divides meiotically to form four microspores surrounded by a specialized callose secondary cell wall. The PMC cell walls degrade, releasing immature microspores into the locule. Exine is then deposited by the tapetum. In qrt1 pollen development, the PMC cell walls fail to completely degrade. Subsequently, qrt1 microspores remain grouped together as exine is deposited, resulting in fully viable pollen tetrads.

 
Arabidopsis QRT1, QRT2, and QRT3 genes are required for normal pollen development (Preuss et al., 1994Go; Rhee et al., 2003Go). In wild-type Arabidopsis, the proper degradation of the PMC cell walls and subsequent separation of microspores results in the release of individual microspores as single pollen grains. Loss of function of any one of the three QRT genes disrupts separation of pollen grains following meiosis and results in the release of meiotically related mature pollen tetrads. The qrt1 mutant properly deposits (Preuss et al., 1994Go) and degrades (Rhee and Somerville, 1998Go) the secondary PMC cell wall composed of callose; however, the primary PMC cell wall remains partially intact following meiosis (Rhee and Somerville, 1998Go). The phenotype of qrt1 is sporophytic and recessive. Pollen in qrt2 mutants develops similarly, but retains patchy callose around the microspores (Preuss et al., 1994Go).

Most plant primary cell walls, including those of PMCs, are composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectins (Reiter, 1994Go; Brett and Waldron, 1996Go). The PMC primary cell wall pectins are particularly interesting in the context of qrt pollen tetrads because they have been proposed to play a major role in cell-cell adhesion mechanisms (Rhee and Somerville, 1998Go). Primary cell wall pectins consist mainly of homogalacturan (a polymer of beta-1,4-galacturonic acid [GalUA]) and rhamnogalacturonan I and rhamnogalacturonan II (branching polymers of GalUA, Ara, and Rha; Brett and Waldron, 1996Go; Schols and Voragen, 2002Go; Tucker and Seymour, 2002Go). As pectin is synthesized, the GalUA backbone is in a methylesterified state (Schols and Voragen, 2002Go). Pectin can then be demethylesterified by pectin methylesterases (PMEs) and subsequently cleaved by endo-polygalacturonases (PGs), a process that can result in cell wall loosening (Micheli, 2001Go). Immunolocalization using an antibody against unesterified pectin shows that, in qrt1 mutants, the PMC walls that remain around the microspores do not stain for unesterified pectins (Rhee and Somerville, 1998Go). This result suggests that QRT1 is involved in pectin demethylesterification. Interestingly, QRT3 has recently been identified as a PG (Rhee et al., 2003Go), further supporting a role for pectin degradation in microspore separation. Specifically, Rhee et al. (2003)Go suggest that QRT3 degrades the pectic polysaccharides of the PMC. Failure to degrade these components in qrt3 mutants presumably mechanically constrains the developing pollen grains, leading to fusion of their developing walls.

Using a combination of forward and reverse genetics, we have identified QRT1 as encoding a PME that likely functions upstream of QRT3 in PMC primary wall degradation. Additionally, we confirm that QRT1 has PME activity by using an enzyme assay with heterologously expressed protein.


   RESULTS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 RESULTS
DISCUSSION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 LITERATURE CITED
 

Identification of QRT1

Previous mapping experiments mapped the qrt1 locus to chromosome 5 between the markers DFR and LFY3 (Preuss et al., 1994Go) in a region containing approximately 2,000 predicted genes. We narrowed the list of candidate genes by focusing on those that were annotated as having putative cell wall functions (The Arabidopsis Information Resource; http://www.arabidopsis.org) and are expressed in anther tissues (Wellmer et al., 2004Go). Five QRT1 candidate genes were identified and appropriate T-DNA insertion lines were obtained from the SALK (Alonso et al., 2003Go) and Wisconsin (Krysan et al., 2002Go) collections. Progeny from those lines were visually screened using a light microscope for tetrad pollen. Lines containing T-DNA inserts in or near At5g55590 (SALK_024104, SALK_051214, and SALK_043429) segregated the pollen tetrad phenotype in ratios consistent with a single Mendelian locus and were provisionally designated qrt1-4, qrt1-5, and qrt1-6, respectively. Other lines containing inserts further upstream or downstream of At5g55590 (SALK_017414 and WiscDsLox453-456-J19) and lines containing inserts in other QRT1 candidate genes produced only monad pollen.

We performed genetic complementation tests to verify that At5g55590 was QRT1. Tetrad-producing SALK_024104 plants (hereafter referred to as qrt1-4) were crossed to qrt1-2. Only tetrad-producing plants (qrt1-2/qrt1-4) were observed in the F1 progeny (Fig. 2 ). The observed failure to complement demonstrates that qrt1-4 is allelic to qrt1-2 and that At5g55590 is QRT1. Progeny from control crosses between qrt1-4 and qrt3-3 (Rhee et al., 2003Go) demonstrated complementation (qrt1-4/+; qrt3-3/+) and produced only monad pollen (Fig. 2).


Figure 2
View larger version (42K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 2. A, Identification of QRT1. A map of At5g55590 (QRT1) and the surrounding regions is presented. Black boxes represent exons drawn to scale. SIGnAL T-DNA insertion lines with tetrad pollen phenotypes are represented as white triangles and the location of the point mutations in qrt1-2 is represented as an asterisk. B, Approximate locations of primers P1 to P5 used in this study are also indicated. T-DNA insertions into At5g55590 fail to complement qrt1-2. Pollen from wild-type Columbia-0 plants (a), qrt1-2 homozygotes (b), qrt3-3 homozygotes (c), qrt1-4 (SALK_024104) homozygotes (d), qrt1-4 crossed to qrt1-2 (qrt1-4/qrt1-2; e), and qrt1-4 crossed to qrt3-3 (qrt1-4/+, qrt3-3/+; f).

 
We characterized the nature of the original qrt1-2 ethyl methanesulfonate allele by cloning and sequencing the mutant gene (Preuss et al., 1994Go). A 4.2-kb genomic fragment corresponding to the At5g55590 open reading frame (ORF) with 2 kb upstream of the translational start codon and 400 bp downstream of the stop codon was cloned from the qrt1-2 background. Nucleotide sequencing of this region revealed two point mutations not present in the wild-type allele. The first mutation (A to G) is located 10 bp upstream of the translational start codon. The second mutation is a deletion of a thymidine at position 18, causing a frame shift.

To confirm the identity of QRT1, we also performed transcomplementation tests by transforming qrt1-2 lines with a copy of the wild-type locus. A 4.2-kb fragment containing the full predicted At5g55590 ORF with 2 kb upstream of the translational start codon and 400 bp downstream of the stop codon was cloned from wild-type plants and introduced into the qrt1-2 background via Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. The presence of both mutant qrt1-2 and wild-type alleles in positive transformants was confirmed using cleaved-amplified polymorphic sequence (CAPS; Konieczny and Ausubel, 1993Go) and derived CAPS (dCAPS; Michaels and Amasino, 1998Go; Neff et al., 1998Go) markers specific for the two qrt1-2 mutations (Fig. 3, A and B ). Nearly all T1 transformants analyzed produced only monad pollen (44 monad producing, two tetrad producing; Fig. 3, C–F), demonstrating complementation of qrt1-2 with At5g55590.


Figure 3
View larger version (46K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 3. Transcomplementation of qrt1. CAPS and dCAPS markers resulting in unique banding patterns for wild-type (WT) and mutant qrt1-2 alleles were generated for both qrt1-2 point mutations. The CAPS marker in A yields a single 732-bp product for QRT1 and 409- and 323-bp products for qrt1-2. The dCAPS marker in B yields 382- and 45-bp (data not shown) products for QRT1 and a single 427-bp product for qrt1-2. Only wild-type QRT1 alleles are present in plasmid pKQRT1, and both wild-type and qrt1-2 alleles are present in lines A2, A3, A6, and A7 generated by transforming qrt1-2 with pKQRT1. Pollen from lines A2, A3, A6, and A7 is presented in C, D, E, and F, respectively.

 

Expression of QRT1

A survey of public databases (SIGnAL, The Arabidopsis Information Resource, and National Center for Biotechnology Information) failed to identify existing cDNA clones corresponding to QRT1. To determine whether transcription of QRT1 occurs in Arabidopsis, reverse transcription (RT)-PCR was performed on unopened flowers (stage 12 or younger) from wild-type, qrt1-2, and qrt1-4 plants (Fig. 4 ) using primers spanning predicted exons 3 to 5 (Smyth et al., 1990Go). Transcription of QRT1 was detected in wild-type and qrt1-2 flowers, but no transcript was detected in the T-DNA insertion mutant qrt1-4 (SALK_024104). RT-PCR was also used to amplify the full-length QRT1 transcript. The full-length transcript was sequenced and the five predicted exon splice junctions were verified (GenBank DQ979876).


Figure 4
View larger version (56K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 4. Transcription of QRT1. Transcription of QRT1 was verified by RT-PCR with primers P4 and P5 (see Fig. 2). A, QRT1 transcript was detected in wild-type and qrt1-2 lines; however, no transcript was detected in the T-DNA knockout mutant qrt1-4 or in control reactions lacking reverse transcriptase (RT). B, The unspliced 602-nucleotide DNA product was easily distinguished from the spliced 420-nucleotide mRNA product. QRT1 and control APT1 (Moffatt et al., 1994Go) transcription was evaluated in different tissues. QRT1 transcript was detected in 5-d seedlings (5 d), 9-d seedlings (9 d), roots (rt), and unopened flower buds (uf), but not in rosette leaves (lf) or opened flowers (of). Transcription of APT1 was observed in all samples.

 
To better understand the expression pattern of QRT1, total RNA was isolated from wild-type tissues and analyzed for QRT1 expression by RT-PCR. The QRT1 transcript was detected in unopened, but not opened, flowers, an expression pattern consistent with a role in pollen development (Fig. 4). The transcript was also detected in extracts from whole 5- and 9-d-old seedlings and 14-d-old roots, but not in mature rosette leaves (Fig. 4). Whereas these results are not intended to be quantitative, it should be noted that the transcript was very difficult to detect in any tissue using multiple primer combinations (data not shown). This may suggest that QRT1 is a low-abundance transcript, which may explain why a full-length QRT1 cDNA has not been previously identified.

To visualize the expression pattern of QRT1, wild-type plants were transformed with beta-glucuronidase (GUS)-green fluorescent protein (GFP) fused to the QRT1 promoter (QRT1pro::GUS-GFP). The same promoter was used to drive expression of QRT1 in the transcomplementation of qrt1-2 described above. Twenty independently transformed plants were analyzed for GUS expression and the patterns described below were consistent in each line (Figs. 5 and 6 ). GUS expression was detected in unopened flowers (Fig. 5B). Specifically, expression was observed in stage 9, 10, and 11 flowers, corresponding to the developmental stages immediately following meiosis and associated with tetrad separation (Smyth et al., 1990Go; Bowman, 1994Go; Fig. 5C). Closer analysis revealed that floral expression was limited to anther tissues (Fig. 5, D and E). Following microspore separation, GUS expression was significantly reduced and appeared to be primarily limited to the surrounding tapetal cells (Fig. 5, F and G).


Figure 5
View larger version (100K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 5. QRT1 promoter activity in flowers. The presence of GUS driven by the QRT1 promoter was detected by X-gluc staining in floral tissues from plants transformed with pKQRT1proFS7. GUS activity was observed in developing flowers (B), but only in floral development stages 9 through 11 (C). In stage 9 flowers, GUS activity was observed in the developing pollen and the surrounding tissues (D and E); however, by stage 11, staining was only observed in the tissues surrounding the pollen (F and G). No GUS activity was detected in wild-type flowers (A). Bars = 1 mm (A–C); 100 µm (D–G).

 

Figure 6
View larger version (137K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 6. QRT1 promoter activity in nonanther tissues. The presence of GUS driven by the QRT1 promoter was detected by X-gluc staining in plants transformed with pKQRT1proFS7. GUS activity was observed in newly developed guard cells (A–C), in the root-hypocotyl transition zone (A), in roots, especially at sites of lateral root emergence (D–F), in nectaries (G and H), and at the stigmatic surface after pollination (I). A, 3-d in vitro seedling. B, 3-d in vitro cotyledon. C, 7-d in vitro cotyledon. D, 4-d in vitro primary root. E and F, 7-d in vitro primary and lateral roots. G, Base of stage 16 flower. H, Higher magnification of nectary from G. I, Stage 15 stigma. Bars = 1 mm (A); 200 µm (G); 100 µm (B–F, and I); 50 µm (H).

 
Analysis of QRT1pro::GUS-GFP expression in nonanther tissues revealed a variety of precise and developmentally regulated expression patterns. The earliest expression appeared in two distinct tissues by 3 d after germination. Expression was observed in a cluster of cells at the root-hypocotyl junction (Fig. 6A). Also, at this stage, expression was observed in developing guard cells on the expanding cotyledons (Fig. 6, A–C). Epidermal peels indicated that the QRT1 promoter was not active in meristemoid or guard mother cells (GMCs; data not shown). The QRT1 promoter becomes active shortly after the GMCs divide to produce two guard cells, but before stomatal pore opening. In cotyledons, GUS staining in cotyledon guard cells is most visible from 3 to 5 d after germination, and then expression rapidly declines by 7 d (Fig. 6C) and is not detectable by 10 d. A similar pattern of expression is seen in guard cells of developing leaves (data not shown).

Expression of the QRT1 promoter is also detected in the root. Roots older than 7 d often demonstrate patchy expression in epidermal and cortex cells; however, QRT1 promoter expression in younger roots appears to be associated with lateral root emergence. The earliest root expression is observed in 4-d-old roots in single or small clusters of endodermal cells (Fig. 6D). These zones of endodermal expression are nearly always adjacent to or surrounding regions of pericycle cell division (Fig. 6D, arrows) consistent with lateral root initiation. As lateral roots develop and push through the outer root layers, QRT1 promoter expression is often observed as a ring surrounding the lateral root (Fig. 6E). After lateral root emergence, expression is very strong at the junction with the primary root (Fig. 6F). Expression was never observed in the root cap or in the region between the root cap and the nearest lateral root.

QRT1 promoter expression in flowers younger than stage 12 is clearly restricted to developing anther tissues; however, analysis of older flowers reveals expression in nectaries (Fig. 6, G and H) and at the stigmatic surface (Fig. 6I). Nectary expression is only observed in mature flowers before floral organ dehiscence (stages 16 and 17) and is observed in both medial and lateral outgrowths. QRT1 promoter expression is observed in nectary guard cells, but expression is not limited to those cells (Fig. 6H). Following pollination, diffuse staining is often visible at the stigmatic surface (Fig. 6I). Staining is never observed prior to pollination and was seen after self pollination and pollination using wild-type pollen. Analysis of GFP expression in the same plants revealed floral and vegetative expression patterns consistent with those of GUS; however, due to autofluorescence, GFP expression was difficult to extensively characterize.


The Phenotype of qrt1 Plants

Previous characterizations of qrt1 plants have described them as phenotypically wild type, except for microspore development (Preuss et al., 1994Go). Because our QRT1 promoter experiments revealed expression patterns in multiple tissues, qrt1 plants were reevaluated for phenotypic differences from wild-type plants. Analysis of stomatal patterning, density, and size found no differences between qrt1 and wild-type plants. Similarly, no differences from wild type were observed in root, nectary, or stigma development or architecture under standard growth conditions.


PME Activity in qrt1 Mutants

QRT1 contains a conserved domain (pfam01095) associated with PME activity. PMEs have been previously implicated in cell wall modifications during pollen development (Albani et al., 1991Go; Mu et al., 1994Go; Wakeley et al., 1998Go; Amagai et al., 2003Go; Lacoux et al., 2003Go) and pollen tube growth (Bosch et al., 2005Go; Jiang et al., 2005Go). To determine whether qrt1 mutants were deficient in PME activity, PME assays were performed on 10-d-old seedlings and stage 9 to 11 flowers. Repeated analyses using a variety of assays (Downie et al., 1998Go; Grsic-Rausch and Rausch, 2004Go; Jiang et al., 2005Go) were unable to demonstrate a significant reduction in total PME activity in qrt1 tissues (data not shown). This inability to detect a reduction in PME activity may be due to other members of the Arabidopsis PME gene family, creating high levels of background activity.


PME Activity in Heterologously Expressed QRT1

To establish that QRT1 functions as a PME, the QRT1 cDNA was cloned and expressed in an Escherichia coli T7 RNA polymerase expression system under the control of the lac promoter. Crude extracts from QRT1-expressing bacterial cultures showed significant increases in PME activity following induction by isopropylthio-beta-galactoside (IPTG; Fig. 7 ). Total protein was extracted from cultures and added to a solution of commercially obtained methylesterified pectin. Under assay conditions, PME removes methylester groups from methylesterified pectin. Ruthenium red, which binds demethylesterified pectin (Downie et al., 1998Go), was added to the reaction and pectin was then precipitated, along with the bound ruthenium red, with calcium chloride. The degree of demethylesterification could then be determined by measuring the supernatant for A534 (Jiang et al., 2005Go). Levels of activity in 1 mg of total protein from QRT1-expressing cultures were similar to those observed in positive enzymatic (0.05 units PME) and chemical (50 mM NaOH) control samples, indicating that QRT1 has PME activity.


Figure 7
View larger version (9K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 7. PME activity. PME activity was assayed in extracts from E. coli containing pDEST14-QRT1. Cultures were sampled prior to induction with IPTG (uninduced) and 4 h after induction (induced). PME activity in control samples containing either water or NaOH (50 mM final concentration) is also reported. Error bars = SDs.

 

   DISCUSSION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
 LITERATURE CITED
 
PMEs play a vital role in cell separation. Primary cell wall pectins are composed of the polysaccharides homogalacturan, rhamnogalacturonan I, and rhamnogalacturonan II. GalUA acid is the primary component of all three of these forms of pectin. As pectins are synthesized, it is believed that GalUA residues are added to the polymers in a methylesterified state, resulting in fully methylesterified pectins (Schols and Voragen, 2002Go). Later in development, as cell walls need to expand, as in guard cell expansion (Nadeau and Sack, 2002Go), or degrade, as in fruit ripening (Giovannoni, 2001Go), pectin chains may need to be cleaved. Pectin chain cleavage is initiated by random demethylesterification by PMEs. The resulting demethylesterified pectin is then cleaved by PGs (Micheli, 2001Go; Tucker and Seymour, 2002Go). PMEs may also function in a different pathway that can lead to cell wall stiffening (discussed below).

PMEs constitute a large Arabidopsis gene family characterized by a conserved PME domain (pfam 01095). Plant PME genes have been described as being either type I or type II (Micheli, 2001Go). Type I PME genes possess a proregion containing a highly conserved PME inhibitor (PMEI) domain (pfam 04043) and typically have two or three exons. Type II PME genes lack a PMEI-containing proregion, typically have five exons, and are often described as being more similar to PME genes of phytopathogenic bacteria and fungi (Micheli, 2001Go). Despite the obvious role of PMEs in various stages of plant development, relatively few PME genes from Arabidopsis have been structurally or functionally characterized (Richard et al., 1994Go, 1996Go; Micheli et al., 1998Go; Jiang et al., 2005Go; Tian et al., 2006Go). Nearly all of the previously described Arabidopsis PME genes are type I PME genes. A phylogenetic analysis of the 66 members of the Arabidopsis PME gene family clearly distinguishes type I from type II PME genes (Supplemental Fig. S1). QRT1 falls within the type II clade of the phylogenetic tree.

PME expression patterns are highly regulated. All previously characterized PMEs from Arabidopsis and other plant species appear to have highly regulated patterns of gene expression at the level of transcription (Bosch and Hepler, 2005Go). An additional level of PME regulation exists in the complex processing of PMEs. The majority of plant PMEs are expressed as pre-pro-PMEs (Micheli, 2001Go). The preregion is involved in the extracellular transport of PMEs (Dorokhov et al., 2006Go). The proregion has homology to PMEIs (discussed below), and the propeptide may play an autoinhibitory role (Giovane et al., 2004Go). The processing of pre-pro-PME into pro-PME and eventually into functionally mature PME has been suggested to be potential levels of regulation (Micheli, 2001Go; Bosch and Hepler, 2005Go). A further level of regulation for some PMEs may be provided by individually expressed PMEIs. PMEIs are capable of binding to the active site of PMEs (Hothorn et al., 2004Go; Di Matteo et al., 2005Go). Two Arabidopsis PMEIs (AtPMEI1 and AtPMEI2) have been identified, and their expression patterns and abilities to inhibit PME activity in vitro suggest that they may have roles in specifically inhibiting PME activity in a tissue-specific manner (Wolf et al., 2003Go; Raiola et al., 2004Go).

Previous analyses of pollen development in qrt mutants have suggested that QRT1 may play a role in pectin degradation within the PMC primary cell wall (Rhee and Somerville, 1998Go). The recent identification of QRT3 as a PG provided further evidence that proper pectin degradation is essential for microspore separation (Rhee et al., 2003Go). Cleavage of pectin by PGs is stimulated by demethylesterification by PMEs (Tucker and Seymour, 2002Go). It is therefore likely that the PME QRT1 and the PG QRT3 function in the same pathway, leading to the loosening and degradation of the PMC primary cell wall (Fig. 8 ).


Figure 8
View larger version (8K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		Figure 8. A model for pollen tetrad separation. A, Pectin methylester groups are liberated as methanol by the PME QRT1. This stimulates the PG QRT3 to cleave the demethylesterified pectin polymers. B, QRT1 and QRT3 likely work together to cleave pectin in the PMC primary wall, contributing to its degradation.

 
The expression pattern of QRT1 as indicated by RT-PCR and analysis of QRT1 pro::GUS fusions suggests a complex, yet precise pattern of QRT1 transcription. The QRT1 promoter is active in the anthers of developing flowers at stage 9, stage 10, and early stage 11 (Fig. 5). This is consistent with the model that QRT1 is involved in the degradation of the PMC primary cell wall. In Arabidopsis, male meiosis is complete by the end of stage 9, and tetrad separation in wild-type anthers is first detected at stage 10 (Bowman, 1994Go; Ma, 2005Go). By stage 11, the QRT1 promoter appears to be expressed primarily in the tissues surrounding the maturing pollen grains and only weakly in the pollen itself (Fig. 5, F and G). This may suggest a role of QRT1 in tapetum degeneration.

Expression of QRT1 in nonanther tissues was not anticipated; however, all tissues observed to have QRT1 expression are associated with specialized cell wall loosening or expansion. For example, stomatal development requires both the separation of guard cells and the expansion of those guard cells (Nadeau and Sack, 2002Go). Guard cell expansion has been previously associated with PME activity (Jones et al., 2003Go, 2005Go); however, because QRT1 expression was never detected in individual cotyledons or leaves older than 7 d (data not shown), it is unlikely that QRT1 plays a role in the opening and closing of mature stomata. The QRT1 promoter appears to be most active in guard cells shortly after (or perhaps concurrent with) division of the GMC and therefore may be involved with guard cell separation or initial guard cell expansion. QRT1 expression was also detected in roots. It is well established that root cell elongation is an integral part of root development (Scheres et al., 2002Go). QRT1 expression in roots was especially strong at sites of lateral root emergence. Lateral roots develop from the pericycle layer within the primary root and must push through the endodermis, cortex, and epidermis layers to emerge from the root (Bowman, 1994Go). It is therefore plausible that PMEs may be involved in loosening the outer layers of cells during lateral root emergence to reduce the stress or possibility of damage to the lateral root tip. Considering the expression pattern of the QRT1 promoter, potential roles for PMEs are also likely at the stigmatic surface and in nectaries.

With such a complex pattern of QRT1 expression in various tissues, it is curious that the only phenotype associated with qrt1 mutants is tetrad pollen. Position, size, and numbers of stomata and lateral roots were extensively examined, but no phenotypes distinguishing qrt1 plants from wild-type plants were identified. Similarly, no differences were observed in floral organ development or dehiscence (other than tetrad pollen). If QRT1 is serving an important role in these tissues, a phenotype might be expected in qrt1 mutants. It is, however, important to consider the size of the Arabidopsis PME family, and the various levels of PME regulation. At least 66 PMEs are predicted in the Arabidopsis genome (Bosch and Hepler, 2005Go), suggesting the possibility of genetic redundancy in the tissues where QRT1 is expressed. A recent analysis of the Arabidopsis PME family indicates that at least 30 PMEs are transcribed in seedlings and at least 50 PMEs are transcribed in flowers (Bosch and Hepler, 2005Go).

Whereas redundancy may help explain why qrt1 does not have a phenotype in most tissues, it raises the question of why any phenotype is seen. Querying the expression data from the 22k ATH1 chip at Genevestigator (www.genevestigator.ethz.ch) shows that 35 of 63 PME family members are expressed in either the stamen or pollen (Zimmermann et al., 2004Go). Only one PME (At3g24130) has its highest relative transcription in the stamen. QRT1 is highly expressed in the stamen, but its relative expression is slightly higher in hypocotyls, roots, and lateral roots. These analyses must be interpreted with caution, however, because all of the stamen-specific experiments at Genevestigator use transcripts from stamens at stage 12 or older, whereas QRT1 is expressed most strongly in stages 9 through 11. Thus, the lack of redundancy between QRT1 and other PME family members could be due to temporal rather than spatial regulation. Alternatively, the QRT1 protein may have some characteristic that distinguishes it from other PMEs and enables it to interact more specifically with the pectin components of the developing pollen walls. Another possibility is that the tissue-specific regulation of PME family members may be achieved though the action of PMEIs. Further genetic and biochemical analysis of QRT1 and the other members of the PME family in Arabidopsis will be necessary to distinguish between these possibilities.

PMEs catalyze the demethylesterification of pectin and the pattern of demethylesterification within a pectin chain can result in distinctly different physiological consequences (Micheli, 2001Go; Tucker and Seymour, 2002Go). When demethylesterification occurs randomly, protons are released that promote the activity of PGs, which, in turn, cleave pectin chains and result in cell wall loosening. Alternatively, demethylesterification of pectin residues can occur linearly. The resulting large blocks of negatively charged pectin residues are thought to interact with calcium ions (Ca++) to form a pectate gel, thus resulting in cell wall stiffening (Goldberg, 1996Go; Jiang et al., 2005Go). A number of factors have been shown to affect which mode of demethylesterification a particular PME undertakes, including pH, ion concentration, and the existing state of pectin methylesterification (Catoire et al., 1998Go; Denes et al., 2000Go; Tucker and Seymour, 2002Go); however, certain PMEs are thought to have a general propensity toward randomized or linear demethylation. In general, PMEs with acidic pH optima, such as most phytopathogenic fungal PMEs, are thought to randomly demethylesterify pectin and result in cell wall loosening. Whereas PMEs with alkaline pH optima, such as most plant PMEs (Bosch and Hepler, 2005Go), are thought to demethylesterify pectin in blocks and result in cell wall stiffening (Tucker and Seymour, 2002Go), QRT1 has a slightly acidic predicted pH optimum of 6.3. This is consistent with the apparent role of QRT1 in the degradation of the PMC primary wall. Other recently characterized pollen-expressed PMEs from Arabidopsis (Jiang et al., 2005Go; Tian et al., 2006Go) and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum; Bosch et al., 2005Go) have alkaline pH optima and appear to be involved in maintaining the rigidity of elongating pollen tube walls. It is of interest that different PMEs expressed in developmentally related tissues can have substantially different functions.

Apparent orthologs of QRT1 exist in a wide range of plant species, including rice, poplar (Populus spp.), and tobacco. In our lab, we have successfully amplified sequences with high similarity to QRT1 from Arabidopsis arenosa, Brassica oleracea, Capsella rubella, and Olimarabidopsis pumila (data not shown). This strongly suggests that orthologs of QRT1 exist in several plant species closely related to Arabidopsis. If similar biochemical pathways leading to microspore separation are present in other plant species, the ability to transfer tetrad analysis to these species may be achieved through RNA interference strategies targeting QRT1 orthologs.


   MATERIALS AND METHODS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
LITERATURE CITED
 

Lines and Vectors Used

Seeds for qrt1-2 were kindly provided by Daphne Preuss at the University of Chicago. All T-DNA insertion lines evaluated in the pollen screen and qrt3-3 (SALK_052045) were obtained from the Arabidopsis Biological Resource Center at Ohio State University. For the analysis of QRT1 promoter activity, pKQRT1proFS7 was constructed by amplifying QRT1—2,000-bp upstream region with primers P1 (5'-CACCGATCGTCTTGGTTGAATGACTAAACCG-3') and P3 (5'-GGGGAATGATGTCTCCTGCACAAGG-3'), inserting that PCR product into the Gateway entry vector pENTR (Invitrogen), and recombining the entry vector with the destination binary vector pKGWFS7 (Karimi et al., 2002Go). For QRT1 complementation, pKQRT1 was constructed by amplifying QRT1 with primers P1 and P2 (5'-CGTGCCACATCTCTGGAAACGTTG-3'), inserting that PCR product into the Gateway entry vector pENTR (Invitrogen), and recombining the entry vector with the destination binary vector pKGW (Karimi et al., 2002Go). Vectors pKQRT1proFS7 and pKQRT1 were transformed into Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain GV3101:pMp90 (Koncz and Schell, 1986Go) via electroporation. Agrobacterium cultures were grown to mid-log phase, pelleted by centrifugation (10 min at 1,000 relative centrifugal force), resuspended in 5% Suc with 0.05% Silwet, and applied to flowering plants as a fine mist using a spray bottle. Transgenic T1 seedlings were identified on solidified Murashige and Skoog medium containing 50 mg/L kanamycin and 200 mg/L timentin, and transferred to potting mix for analysis.


Characterization of qrt1-2

To identify the nature of the mutations in At5g55590 present in the qrt1-2 background, the entire ORF, including 2 kb upstream of the start codon and 200 bp downstream of the stop codon, was amplified by PCR and sequenced to at least 4 times coverage by the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill Genome Analysis Facility. The two point mutations identified were then analyzed with dCAPS finder 2.0 (Neff et al., 2002Go). The upstream mutation resulted in the generation of an AatII site. Therefore, AatII digestion of the 732-bp P8 (5'-GATGATGGTAATGTTTATGTTTGAGG-3')/P9 (5'-CAAACACGGTTTATGTCTTAAATC-3') fragment resulted in 409- and 323-bp products only for the mutant qrt1-2 allele. For the mutation in codon 6, amplification with primers P10 (5'-TTTCCTTGTGCAGGAGACATCATTCCCCATGAAAGTCGAAGAATT-3') and P9 results in a 427-bp fragment containing an XmnI site only for the wild-type QRT1 allele. Therefore, XmnI digestion of the P9/P10 fragment resulted in 382- and 45-bp products only for the wild-type QRT1 allele.


QRT1 Expression

Lines containing pKQRT1proFS7 were analyzed for GUS expression by staining with 5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-beta-glucuronic acid (X-gluc; Jefferson et al., 1987Go). For analysis of QRT1 transcription, total plant RNA was isolated using Tri-Reagent (Molecular Research Center) and following the manufacturer's instructions. RT-PCR was achieved with the AccessQuick RT-PCR system (Promega). Characterization of QRT1 transcription in various tissues was achieved with primers P4 (5'-GCTATATCCAAGGCAATGTAG-3') and P5 (5'-CTCCATATATGAACTCTCTTCCC-3'). APT1 was used as a control with primers APT1-F (5'-TCCCAGAATCGCTAAGATTGCC-3') and APT1-R (5'-CCTTTCCCTTAAGCTCTG-3'). Primers P6 (5'-CACCTTTCCTTGTGCAGGAGACATCATTC-3') and P7 (5'-ATTTAGAGTCTCAGCCATTG-3') were used to amplify the full cDNA ORF for sequencing. All sequencing was carried out by the University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill Genome Analysis Facility.


Heterologous Expression of QRT1 and PME Assay

Full-length QRT1 cDNA was generated using Thermoscript RNase H-reverse transcriptase (Invitrogen) and the reverse primer P7 and amplified with Accuzyme DNA polymerase (Bioline) using primers P6 and P7. The QRT1 cDNA fragment was introduced into the Gateway entry vector pENTR (Invitrogen) and recombined into the Escherichia coli expression vector pDEST14 (Invitrogen). The resulting vector, pDEST14-QRT1, was transformed into the E. coli expression strain BL21(DE3). Expression was induced by adding IPTG to a final concentration of 1 mM. Cultures were grown for an additional 4 h. One milliliter of each culture was pelleted and resuspended in 0.1 mL PME extraction buffer (50 mM citric acid, 100 mM sodium phosphate dibasic, 500 mM sodium chloride, and one tablet Complete Mini protease inhibitor [Roche]/100 mL). Each sample was subjected to six freeze-thaw cycles and centrifuged for 5 min at 12,000g at 4°C, and the supernatant was collected. Protein concentration was determined using Bio-Rad protein assay. PME activity was assayed essentially as described by Jiang et al. (2005)Go. For each sample, 500 ng of protein extract were added to 0.8-mL pectin solution (0.1% esterified pectin [Sigma P9561] in 50 mM sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.0). Samples were incubated at 37°C for 18 h. To each sample, 0.2 mL 0.05% ruthenium red (Sigma R2751) was added. Samples were briefly vortexed and incubated at room temperature for 15 min. Pectin was precipitated by adding 0.2 mL of 0.6 M calcium chloride and mixed by inversion. Samples were centrifuged for 10 min at 12,000g and the supernatants were collected and measured for A534. Control samples containing known concentrations of purified PME (Sigma P5400) were similarly assayed to establish a standard curve. All samples were replicated four times.

Sequence data from this article can be found in the GenBank/EMBL data libraries under accession number DQ979876.


Supplemental Data

The following materials are available in the online version of this article.

Supplemental Figure S1. Phylogenetic analysis of Arabidopsis PME family.


   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
We would like to thank Daphne Preuss for providing quartet lines and helpful discussions. We would also like to thank Stephanie Hartmann for assistance with the phylogenetic analysis of the Arabidopsis PME family and three anonymous reviewers for constructive comments.

Received June 16, 2006; accepted August 31, 2006; published September 15, 2006.


   FOOTNOTES
 
1 This work was supported by start-up funds from the University of North Carolina Biology Department, the Carolina Center for Genome Sciences, and the National Science Foundation (grant no. 0517464). Back

The author responsible for distribution of materials integral to the findings presented in this article in accordance with the policy described in the Instructions for Authors (www.plantphysiol.org) is: Gregory P. Copenhaver (gcopenhaver{at}bio.unc.edu).

[W] The online version of this article contains Web-only data. Back

www.plantphysiol.org/cgi/doi/10.1104/pp.106.085274

* Corresponding author; e-mail gcopenhaver{at}bio.unc.edu; fax 919–962–1625.


   LITERATURE CITED
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
 LITERATURE CITED
 
Albani D, Altosaar I, Arnison PG, Fabijanski SF (1991) A gene showing sequence similarity to pectin esterase is specifically expressed in developing pollen of Brassica napus: sequences in its 5' flanking region are conserved in other pollen-specific promoters. Plant Mol Biol 16: 501–513[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Alonso JM, Stepanova AN, Leisse TJ, Kim CJ, Chen H, Shinn P, Stevenson DK, Zimmerman J, Barajas P, Cheuk R, et al (2003) Genome-wide insertional mutagenesis of Arabidopsis thaliana. Science 301: 653–657[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Amagai M, Ariizumi T, Endo M, Hatakeyama K, Kuwata C, Shibata D, Toriyama K, Watanabe M (2003) Identification of anther-specific genes in a cruciferous model plant, Arabidopsis thaliana, by using a combination of Arabidopsis macroarray and mRNA derived from Brassica oleracea. Sex Plant Reprod 15: 213–220

Bedinger PA (1992) The remarkable biology of pollen. Plant Cell 4: 879–887[Free Full Text]

Boavida LC, Becker JD, Feijo JA (2005) The making of gametes in higher plants. Int J Dev Biol 49: 595–614[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Bosch M, Cheung AY, Hepler PK (2005) Pectin methylesterase, a regulator of pollen tube growth. Plant Physiol 138: 1334–1346[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Bosch M, Hepler PK (2005) Pectin methylesterases and pectin dynamics in pollen tubes. Plant Cell 17: 3219–3226[Free Full Text]

Bowman J (1994) Arabidopsis—An Atlas of Morphology and Development, Ed 1. Springer-Verlag, New York

Brett C, Waldron K (1996) Physiology and Biochemistry of Plant Cell Walls. Chapman and Hall, London

Carpita NC, Gibeaut DM (1993) Structural models of primary cell walls in flowering plants: consistency of molecular structure with the physical properties of the walls during growth. Plant J 3: 1–30[CrossRef][Medline]

Catoire L, Pierron M, Morvan C, du Penhoat CH, Goldberg R (1998) Investigation of the action patterns of pectin methylesterase isoforms through kinetic analyses and NMR spectroscopy: implications in cell wall expansion. J Biol Chem 273: 33150–33156[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Copenhaver GP, Keith KC, Preuss D (2000) Tetrad analysis in higher plants: a budding technology. Plant Physiol 124: 7–16[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Denes JM, Baron A, Renard CM, Pean C, Drilleau JF (2000) Different action patterns for apple pectin methylesterase at pH 7.0 and 4.5. Carbohydr Res 327: 385–393[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Di Matteo A, Giovane A, Raiola A, Camardella L, Bonivento D, De Lorenzo G, Cervone F, Bellincampi D, Tsernoglou D (2005) Structural basis for the interaction between pectin methylesterase and a specific inhibitor protein. Plant Cell 17: 849–858[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Dong X, Hong Z, Sivaramakrishnan M, Mahfouz M, Verma DP (2005) Callose synthase (CalS5) is required for exine formation during microgametogenesis and for pollen viability in Arabidopsis. Plant J 42: 315–328[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Dorokhov YL, Skurat EV, Frolova OY, Gasanova TV, Ivanov PA, Ravin NV, Skryabin KG, Makinen KM, Klimyuk VI, Gleba YY, et al (2006) Role of the leader sequence in tobacco pectin methylesterase secretion. FEBS Lett 580: 3329–3334[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Downie B, Dirk LM, Hadfield KA, Wilkins TA, Bennett AB, Bradford KJ (1998) A gel diffusion assay for quantification of pectin methylesterase activity. Anal Biochem 264: 149–157[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Giovane A, Servillo L, Balestrieri C, Raiola A, D'Avino R, Tamburrini M, Ciardiello MA, Camardella L (2004) Pectin methylesterase inhibitor. Biochim Biophys Acta 1696: 245–252[Medline]

Giovannoni J (2001) Molecular biology of fruit maturation and ripening. Annu Rev Plant Physiol Plant Mol Biol 52: 725–749[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Goldberg R (1996) Methyl-esterification, de-esterification and gelation of pectins in the primary cell wall. In J Vesser, AGJ Voragen, eds, Pectins and Pectinases. Elsevier Science, New York, pp 151–172

Grsic-Rausch S, Rausch T (2004) A coupled spectrophotometric enzyme assay for the determination of pectin methylesterase activity and its inhibition by proteinaceous inhibitors. Anal Biochem 333: 14–18[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Hothorn M, Wolf S, Aloy P, Greiner S, Scheffzek K (2004) Structural insights into the target specificity of plant invertase and pectin methylesterase inhibitory proteins. Plant Cell 16: 3437–3447[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Jefferson RA, Kavanagh TA, Bevan MW (1987) GUS fusions: beta-glucuronidase as a sensitive and versatile gene fusion marker in higher plants. EMBO J 6: 3901–3907[Web of Science][Medline]

Jiang L, Yang SL, Xie LF, Puah CS, Zhang XQ, Yang WC, Sundaresan V, Ye D (2005) VANGUARD1 encodes a pectin methylesterase that enhances pollen tube growth in the Arabidopsis style and transmitting tract. Plant Cell 17: 584–596[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Johnson-Brousseau SA, McCormick S (2004) A compendium of methods useful for characterizing Arabidopsis pollen mutants and gametophytically-expressed genes. Plant J 39: 761–775[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Jones L, Milne JL, Ashford D, McCann MC, McQueen-Mason SJ (2005) A conserved functional role of pectic polymers in stomatal guard cells from a range of plant species. Planta 221: 255–264[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Jones L, Milne JL, Ashford D, McQueen-Mason SJ (2003) Cell wall arabinan is essential for guard cell function. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 100: 11783–11788[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Karimi M, Inze D, Depicker A (2002) GATEWAY vectors for Agrobacterium-mediated plant transformation. Trends Plant Sci 7: 193–195[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Koncz C, Schell J (1986) The promoter of TL-DNA gene 5 controls the tissue-specific expression of chimeric genes carried by a novel type of Agrobacterium binary vector. Mol Gen Genet 204: 383–396[CrossRef][Web of Science]

Konieczny A, Ausubel FM (1993) A procedure for mapping Arabidopsis mutations using co-dominant ecotype-specific PCR-based markers. Plant J 4: 403–410[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Krysan PJ, Young JC, Jester PJ, Monson S, Copenhaver G, Preuss D, Sussman MR (2002) Characterization of T-DNA insertion sites in Arabidopsis thaliana and the implications for saturation mutagenesis. OMICS 6: 163–174[CrossRef][Medline]

Lacoux J, Gutierrez L, Dantin F, Beaudoin B, Roger D, Laine E (2003) Antisense transgenesis of tobacco with a flax pectin methylesterase affects pollen ornamentation. Protoplasma 222: 205–209[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Ma H (2005) Molecular genetic analyses of microsporogenesis and microgametogenesis in flowering plants. Annu Rev Plant Biol 56: 393–434[CrossRef][Medline]

Michaels SD, Amasino RM (1998) A robust method for detecting single-nucleotide changes as polymorphic markers by PCR. Plant J 14: 381–385[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Micheli F (2001) Pectin methylesterases: cell wall enzymes with important roles in plant physiology. Trends Plant Sci 6: 414–419[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Micheli F, Holliger C, Goldberg R, Richard L (1998) Characterization of the pectin methylesterase-like gene AtPME3: a new member of a gene family comprising at least 12 genes in Arabidopsis thaliana. Gene 220: 13–20[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Moffatt BA, McWhinnie EA, Agarwal SK, Schaff DA (1994) The adenine phosphoribosyltransferase-encoding gene of Arabidopsis thaliana. Gene 143: 211–216[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Mu JH, Stains JP, Kao T (1994) Characterization of a pollen-expressed gene encoding a putative pectin esterase of Petunia inflata. Plant Mol Biol 25: 539–544[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Nadeau JA, Sack FD (2002) Stomatal development in Arabidopsis. In CR Somerville, EM Meyerowitz, eds, The Arabidopsis Book. American Society of Plant Biologists, Rockville, MD, doi: 10.1199/tab.0066, http://www.aspb.org/publications/arabidopsis/

Neff MM, Neff JD, Chory J, Pepper AE (1998) dCAPS, a simple technique for the genetic analysis of single nucleotide polymorphisms: experimental applications in Arabidopsis thaliana genetics. Plant J 14: 387–392[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Neff MM, Turk E, Kalishman M (2002) Web-based primer design for single nucleotide polymorphism analysis. Trends Genet 18: 613–615[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Nishikawa S, Zinkl GM, Swanson RJ, Maruyama D, Preuss D (2005) Callose (beta-1,3 glucan) is essential for Arabidopsis pollen wall patterning, but not tube growth. BMC Plant Biol 5: 22[CrossRef][Medline]

Owen HA, Makaroff CA (1995) Ultrastructure of microsporogenesis and microgametogenesis in Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. ecotype Wassilewskija (Brassicaceae). Protoplasma 185: 7–21[CrossRef][Web of Science]

Preuss D, Rhee SY, Davis RW (1994) Tetrad analysis possible in Arabidopsis with mutation of the QUARTET (QRT) genes. Science 264: 1458–1460[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Raiola A, Camardella L, Giovane A, Mattei B, De Lorenzo G, Cervone F, Bellincampi D (2004) Two Arabidopsis thaliana genes encode functional pectin methylesterase inhibitors. FEBS Lett 557: 199–203[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Reiter WD (1994) Structure, synthesis, and function of the plant cell wall. In EM Meyerowitz, CR Somerville, eds, Arabidopsis. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, pp 955–988

Rhee SY, Osborne E, Poindexter PD, Somerville CR (2003) Microspore separation in the quartet 3 mutants of Arabidopsis is impaired by a defect in a developmentally regulated polygalacturonase required for pollen mother cell wall degradation. Plant Physiol 133: 1170–1180[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Rhee SY, Somerville CR (1998) Tetrad pollen formation in quartet mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana is associated with persistence of pectic polysaccharides of the pollen mother cell wall. Plant J 15: 79–88[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Richard L, Qin LX, Gadal P, Goldberg R (1994) Molecular cloning and characterisation of a putative pectin methylesterase cDNA in Arabidopsis thaliana (L.). FEBS Lett 355: 135–139[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Richard L, Qin LX, Goldberg R (1996) Clustered genes within the genome of Arabidopsis thaliana encoding pectin methylesterase-like enzymes. Gene 170: 207–211[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Scheres B, Benfey P, Dolan L (2002) Root development. In CR Somerville, EM Meyerowitz, eds, The Arabidopsis Book. American Society of Plant Biologists, Rockville, MD, doi: 10.1199/tab.0101, http://www.aspb.org/publications/arabidopsis/

Schnurr JA, Storey KK, Jung HJ, Somers DA, Gronwald JW (2006) UDP-sugar pyrophosphorylase is essential for pollen development in Arabidopsis. Planta 224: 520–532[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Schols HA, Voragen AGJ (2002) The chemical structure of pectins. In GB Seymour, PG Knox, eds, Pectins and Their Manipulation. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp 1–29

Smyth DR, Bowman JL, Meyerowitz EM (1990) Early flower development in Arabidopsis. Plant Cell 2: 755–767[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Tian GW, Chen MH, Zaltsman A, Citovsky V (2006) Pollen-specific pectin methylesterase involved in pollen tube growth. Dev Biol 294: 83–91[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Tucker GA, Seymour GB (2002) Modification and degradation of pectins. In GB Seymour, PG Knox, eds, Pectins and Their Manipulation. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp 150–173

Wakeley PR, Rogers HJ, Rozycka M, Greenland AJ, Hussey PJ (1998) A maize pectin methylesterase-like gene, ZmC5, specifically expressed in pollen. Plant Mol Biol 37: 187–192[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Wellmer F, Riechmann JL, Alves-Ferreira M, Meyerowitz EM (2004) Genome-wide analysis of spatial gene expression in Arabidopsis flowers. Plant Cell 16: 1314–1326[Abstract/Free Full Text]

Wolf S, Grsic-Rausch S, Rausch T, Greiner S (2003) Identification of pollen-expressed pectin methylesterase inhibitors in Arabidopsis. FEBS Lett 555: 551–555[CrossRef][Web of Science][Medline]

Zimmermann P, Hirsch-Hoffmann M, Hennig L, Gruissem W (2004) GENEVESTIGATOR: Arabidopsis microarray database and analysis toolbox. Plant Physiol 136: 2621–2632[Abstract/Free Full Text]




This article has been cited by other articles:


Home page
 Plant Physiol.Home page
B. Singh, U. Avci, S. E. Eichler Inwood, M. J. Grimson, J. Landgraf, D. Mohnen, I. Sorensen, C. G. Wilkerson, W. G.T. Willats, and C. H. Haigler
A Specialized Outer Layer of the Primary Cell Wall Joins Elongating Cotton Fibers into Tissue-Like Bundles
Plant Physiology, June 1, 2009; 150(2): 684 - 699.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Plant CellHome page
A. L. Szumlanski and E. Nielsen
The Rab GTPase RabA4d Regulates Pollen Tube Tip Growth in Arabidopsis thaliana
PLANT CELL, February 1, 2009; 21(2): 526 - 544.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Plant CellHome page
M. Ogawa, P. Kay, S. Wilson, and S. M. Swain
ARABIDOPSIS DEHISCENCE ZONE POLYGALACTURONASE1 (ADPG1), ADPG2, and QUARTET2 Are Polygalacturonases Required for Cell Separation during Reproductive Development in Arabidopsis
PLANT CELL, January 1, 2009; 21(1): 216 - 233.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J Exp BotHome page
F. Delmas, M. Seveno, J. G. B. Northey, M. Hernould, P. Lerouge, P. McCourt, and C. Chevalier
The synthesis of the rhamnogalacturonan II component 3-deoxy-D-manno-2-octulosonic acid (Kdo) is required for pollen tube growth and elongation
J. Exp. Bot., July 1, 2008; 59(10): 2639 - 2647.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Plant CellHome page
J. K. Jensen, S. O. Sorensen, J. Harholt, N. Geshi, Y. Sakuragi, I. Moller, J. Zandleven, A. J. Bernal, N. B. Jensen, C. Sorensen, et al.
Identification of a Xylogalacturonan Xylosyltransferase Involved in Pectin Biosynthesis in Arabidopsis
PLANT CELL, May 1, 2008; 20(5): 1289 - 1302.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Plant Physiol.Home page
A. Siedlecka, S. Wiklund, M.-A. Peronne, F. Micheli, J. Lesniewska, I. Sethson, U. Edlund, L. Richard, B. Sundberg, and E. J. Mellerowicz
Pectin Methyl Esterase Inhibits Intrusive and Symplastic Cell Growth in Developing Wood Cells of Populus
Plant Physiology, February 1, 2008; 146(2): 554 - 565.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USAHome page
Y. Zhang and S. McCormick
A distinct mechanism regulating a pollen-specific guanine nucleotide exchange factor for the small GTPase Rop in Arabidopsis thaliana
PNAS, November 20, 2007; 104(47): 18830 - 18835.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Plant Physiol.Home page
S. Xing and S. Zachgo
Pollen Lethality: A Phenomenon in Arabidopsis RNA Interference Plants
Plant Physiology, October 1, 2007; 145(2): 330 - 333.
[Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 Plant Physiol.Home page
V. Lionetti, A. Raiola, L. Camardella, A. Giovane, N. Obel, M. Pauly, F. Favaron, F. Cervone, and D. Bellincampi
Overexpression of Pectin Methylesterase Inhibitors in Arabidopsis Restricts Fungal Infection by Botrytis cinerea
Plant Physiology, April 1, 2007; 143(4): 1871 - 1880.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Supplemental Data
Right arrow All Versions of this Article:
142/3/1004    most recent
pp.106.085274v1
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Email this article to a friend
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in ISI Web of Science
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via CrossRef
Right arrow Citing Articles via ISI Web of Science (20)
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Francis, K. E.
Right arrow Articles by Copenhaver, G. P.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Francis, K. E.
Right arrow Articles by Copenhaver, G. P.
Agricola
Right arrow Articles by Francis, K. E.
Right arrow Articles by Copenhaver, G. P.

HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
ASPB Publications PLANT PHYSIOLOGY® THE PLANT CELL
Copyright © 2006 by the American Society of Plant Biologists